Modal Auxiliaries
The modal auxiliaries have a number of different meanings. They are generally used to indicate something which is potensial or uncertain. Remember that a modal is an auxiliary, and thus is NEVER used with do, does, or did. The modals include:
PRESENT TENSE | PAST TENSE |
Will | Would (Used to) |
Can | Could |
May | Might |
Shall | Should (Ought to) (had better) (had to) |
Must (Have to) |
NOTE : Words in parenthese (....) indicate semi-modals. These have similar meaning to the modals, but are not grammatically the same.
- · Negation of modals : To make a modal negative, add the particle not after the modal.
Ex : John would like to leave
John would not like to leave
- · Questions with modals : To make a question, one places the modal at the beginning of the sentence.
Ex : Would John like to leave?
NOTE : A modal is always directly followed by the simple form (verb word).
This is the infinitive without to.
INFINITIVE | SIMPLE FORM |
To be | Be |
To go | Go |
To have | Have |
This means that after a modal there can NEVER be : [verb + ing], [verb + s], past tense, or infinitive.
- · There are two ways that a can occur :
1. Modal + simple form of the verb
Would be Could go Will have
2. Modal + have + [verb in past participle]
Would have been Could have gone Will have had
NOTE : The word have, of course, must always be in the simple form after a modal it can never be has or had.
- · Meanings of the modals : Each of the modals has a different meaning. It is necessary to know the meaning of each.
- · Will : Will indicates future certainty
- John will begin the job tomorrow
- Maria will leave in January
Real conditions : [possibly true]
FUTURE TIME
If + subject + simple present tense..... + will/can/may/must + [verb in simple form]
- · If I have the money, I will buy a new car
- · We will have plenty of time to finish the project before dinner if it is only ten o’clock now.
COMMAND
if + subject + simple present tense... + command form*...
- · Remember that the command form consist of the simple form of the verb.
- · If you go to the Post office, please mail this letter for me. Please call me if you hear from John.
Unreal conditions (not true)
PRESENT OR FUTURE TIME
if + subject + simple present tense... + would/could/might + [verb in simple form].
PAST TIME
if + subject + past perfect.. + would/could/might + have + [verb in past participle].
As if/as though
These conjuctions indicate something unreal or contrary to fact and thus are very similar in form to conditional sentences.
Subject + verb [present] + as if/as though + subject + verb [past].......
- · The old lady dresses as if it were winter even in the summer. (it is not winter)
- · Angelique walks at though she studied modeling. (she didn’t study modeling)
- · He acts as though he were rich. (He is not rich)
Subject + verb [past] + as if/as though + subject + vern [past perfect]
- · Betty talked about the contest as if she had won the grand prize. (She didn’t win the grand peize)
- · Jeff looked as if he had seen a ghost. (He didn’t see a ghost)
- · He looked as though he had run ten miles. (He didn’t run ten miles)
Modal Simple
I could swim at the beach. Modal Continuous
I could be swimming at the beach right now. Modal Perfect
I could have swum at the beach yesterday. Modal Perfect Continuous
I could have been swimming at the beach instead of working in the office. | Passive Modal Simple
The room should be cleaned once a day. Passive Modal Continuous
The room should be being cleaned now. Passive Modal Perfect
The room should have been cleaned yesterday. Passive Modal Perfect Continuous
The room should have been being cleaned but nobody was there. (Rare form) |
Simple Subjects
The main word in the subject is the noun ``piece,'' with the other words of the subject -- ``a'' and ``of pepperoni pizza'' – tell about the noun. ``piece'' is the simple subject.
Bold the simple subject in each sentence. The first four have been done for you.
1. Christmas is a wonderful holiday celebrated by millions of people
2. Christmas decorations adorned every building on the street.
3. She rarely behaves so rudely.
4. How often has he forgotten to call?
5. My little brother broke his finger.
6. His Uncle Bob asked for directions.
7. Those soldiers carried guns.
8. Our babysitter arrived late.
Simple Predicate
A simple predicate is always the verb or verbs that links up with the subject.
1. My little brother broke his finger.
2. His Uncle Bob asked for directions.
3. Those soldiers carried guns.
4. Our babysitter arrived late.
Compound Subject
A sentence may have a compound subject -- a simple subject made up of more than one noun or pronoun.
1. Her uncle and she walked slowly through the art gallery and admired the beautiful pictures exhibited there.
2. My little brother and my cousin broke their fingers.
3. His Uncle Bob and Aunt Betty asked for directions.
4. Those soldiers and agents carried guns.
5. Our babysitter and her friend arrived late.
Compound Predicate
A compound predicate, is more than one verb relating to the same subject.
- My little brother bruised and broke his finger.
- His Uncle Bob looked and asked for directions.
- Those soldiers carried and used guns.
- Our babysitter overslept and arrived late.
SUB ORDINATORS
The most common subordinators are:
although, even though, because, since*, so that, when, while, before*, after*, whenever, wherever, anywhere, if, unless, whether [or not] as, as [adjective] as, whereas | | (to show slight contrast) (to give reasons) (to indicate time relationships) (to indicate place) (to indicate conditions) (to give comparisons) (to show major contrast) |
· Though/although/even though (walaupun),
contoh : Though He was sick, he went to school.
· Because/Since/ As/For (karena),
contoh : Because she got a good mark, she was very happy.
· If/In case/Providing/Provided (jika),
contoh : I will come to the party, if he invites me.
· When/While (ketika), contoh : Kukuh was crying when his girlfriend came.
· Where (dimana), contoh : I don’t know where the place is.
· Before (sebelum), contoh : Before he took a bath, he had a ready had breakfast.
· After (setelah), contoh : After she has breakfast, she goes to school.
CONJUNCTION
Definition
Some words are satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right out of the box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book. Others aren't happy unless they're out on the town, mixing it up with other words; they're joiners and they just can't help themselves. A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence.
Coordinating Conjunctions
The simple, little conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions (you can click on the words to see specific descriptions of each one):
Coordinating Conjunctions |
| | | | | | |
Among the coordinating conjunctions, the most common, of course, are and, but, and or. It might be helpful to explore the uses of these three little words. The examples below by no means exhaust the possible meanings of these conjunctions. a. To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Tashonda sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a response."
b. To suggest that one idea is the result of another: "Willie heard the weather report and promptly boarded up his house."
c. To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced by but in this usage): "Juanita is brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality.
d. To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage): "Hartford is a rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight." e. To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (usually the first clause is an imperative): "Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find yourself deep in debt." f. To suggest a kind of "comment" on the first clause: "Charlie became addicted to gambling — and that surprised no one who knew him."
a. To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joey lost a fortune in the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably."
b. To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative way (sometimes replaced by on the contrary): "The club never invested foolishly, but used the services of a sage investment counselor."
c. To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" (and then the second word takes over as subject): "Everybody but Goldenbreath is trying out for the team."
a. To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other: "You can study hard for this exam or you can fail."
b. To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: "We can broil chicken on the grill tonight, or we can just eat leftovers.
c. To suggest a refinement of the first clause: "Smith College is the premier all-women's college in the country, or so it seems to most Smith College alumnae."
d. To suggest a restatement or "correction" of the first part of the sentence: "There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us."
e. To suggest a negative condition: "The New Hampshire state motto is the rather grim "Live free or die." f. To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative (see use of and above): "They must approve his political style or they wouldn't keep electing him mayor." The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other conjunctions, so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or writing. Its most common use is as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor (see below): · He is neither sane nor brilliant.
· That is neither what I said nor what I meant.
>It can be used with other negative expressions:
· That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as an admission of guilt.
It is possible to use nor without a preceding negative element, but it is unusual and, to an extent, rather stuffy:
· George's handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he ever proven untrustworthy.
The word FOR is most often used as a preposition, of course, but it does serve, on rare occasions, as a coordinating conjunction. Some people regard the conjunction for as rather highfalutin and literary, and it does tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text. Beginning a sentence with the conjunction "for" is probably not a good idea, except when you're singing "For he's a jolly good fellow. "For" has serious sequential implications and in its use the order of thoughts is more important than it is, say, with because or since. Its function is to introduce the reason for the preceding clause: · John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company's board of trustees.
· Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for it had been a long, dusty journey on the train.
Be careful of the conjunction SO. Sometimes it can connect two independent clauses along with a comma, but sometimes it can't. For instance, in this sentence, · Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister, and his Uncle Chet.
where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers would use a semicolon between the two independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is acting like a minor-league "therefore," the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the task:
· Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids crowds of his adoring fans.
Sometimes, at the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a kind of summing up device or transition, and when it does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma:
· So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his parents.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator) comes at the beginning of a subordinate and establishes the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.
· He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.
· Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.
· Unless we act now, all is lost.
Common Subordinating Conjunctions |
after
although
as
as if
as long as
as though
because
before
even if
even though | if
if only
in order that
now that
once
rather than
since
so that
than
that | though
till
unless
until
when
whenever
where
whereas
wherever
while |
Correlative Conjunctions
Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions. They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as grammatically equal.
· She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.
· Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be."
· Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.
both . . . and
not only . . . but also
not . . . but
either . . . or | neither . . . nor
whether . . . or
as . . . as |
Conjunctive Adverbs
The conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result are used to create complex relationships between ideas. Refer to the section on coherence : Transitions Between Ideas for an extensive list of conjunctive adverbs categorized according to their various uses and for some advice on their application within sentences (including punctuation issues).
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
Adjective clauses can start with a relative pronoun and some common ones are: who, whom, that, or which. Also, relative adverbs can begin the clause and these include: when, where, and why. Adjective clauses do not need commas unless the information they give is additional and not essential. In other words, the clause does not change the basic meaning of the sentence.
Here are several examples of sentences with the adjective clauses underlined:
· Pizza, which most people love, is not very healthy.
· The people whose names are on the list will go to camp.
· Grandpa remembers the old days when there was no television.
· Fruit that is grown organically is expensive.
· Students who are intelligent get good grades.
· I know someone whose father served in World War II.
· Making noise when he eats is the main reason why Sue does not like to eat with her brother.
· I enjoy telling people about Janet Evanovich whose latest book was fantastic.
· "He who can no longer pause to wonder and stand rapt in awe is as good as dead." - Albert Einstein
· “Those who do not complain are never pitied.” - Jane Austen
· “People demand freedom of speech to make up for the freedom of thought which they avoid.” - Søren Kierkegaard
· “Never go to a doctor whose office plants have died.” - Erma Bombeck
Referensi:
1. Judul Buku : TOEFL PREPARE GUIDE
No. Buku : 428.076
